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Cambridge Assessment English or Cambridge English develops and produces Cambridge English Qualifications and the International English Language Testing System ().The organisation contributed to the development of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), the standard used around the world to benchmark language skills, [2] and its qualifications and tests are aligned with ...
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment, [ 1] abbreviated in English as CEFR, CEF, or CEFRL, is a guideline used to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across Europe and, increasingly, in other countries. The CEFR is also intended to make it easier for educational institutions ...
Edgar W. Schneider 's dynamic model of postcolonial Englishes adopts an evolutionary perspective [ 1] emphasizing language ecologies. It shows how language evolves as a process of 'competition-and-selection', and how certain linguistic features emerge. [ 2] The Dynamic Model illustrates how the histories and ecologies will determine language ...
Logo. The Examination for the Certificate in Proficiency in English (ECPE) is an advanced level English language qualification that focuses on Level C2 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) . It is developed by CaMLA, a not-for-profit collaboration between the University of Michigan and the University of Cambridge.
Question answering. Question answering ( QA) is a computer science discipline within the fields of information retrieval and natural language processing (NLP) that is concerned with building systems that automatically answer questions that are posed by humans in a natural language. [1]
A language model is a probabilistic model of a natural language. [1] In 1980, the first significant statistical language model was proposed, and during the decade IBM performed ‘Shannon-style’ experiments, in which potential sources for language modeling improvement were identified by observing and analyzing the performance of human subjects in predicting or correcting text.
English classes in Moscow in 1964. English as a second or foreign language refers to the use of English by individuals whose native language is different, commonly among students learning to speak and write English. Variably known as English as a foreign language (EFL), English as a second language (ESL), English for speakers of other languages ...
A PDF file is often a combination of vector graphics, text, and bitmap graphics. The basic types of content in a PDF are: Typeset text stored as content streams (i.e., not encoded in plain text ); Vector graphics for illustrations and designs that consist of shapes and lines;