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Biologists are able to study life at multiple levels of organization, [1] from the molecular biology of a cell to the anatomy and physiology of plants and animals, and evolution of populations. [1] [6] Hence, there are multiple subdisciplines within biology, each defined by the nature of their research questions and the tools that they use.
Calcium ions (Ca 2+) contribute to the physiology and biochemistry of organisms' cells. They play an important role in signal transduction pathways, [2] [3] where they act as a second messenger, in neurotransmitter release from neurons, in contraction of all muscle cell types, and in fertilization.
The internal environment (or milieu intérieur in French; French pronunciation: [mi.ljø ɛ̃.te.ʁjœʁ]) was a concept developed by Claude Bernard, [1] [2] a French physiologist in the 19th century, to describe the interstitial fluid and its physiological capacity to ensure protective stability for the tissues and organs of multicellular organisms.
They maintain homeostasis, form myelin in the peripheral nervous system, and provide support and protection for neurons. [2] In the central nervous system, glial cells include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells and microglia, and in the peripheral nervous system they include Schwann cells and satellite cells.
The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as the pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still"). [105] Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain.
As referenced in the explanation of smooth muscle physiology, smooth muscle within the tunica media is innervated by the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls essential involuntary body functions and originates as nerves leaving the brain stem or spinal cord; it contains both sensor and motor nerves. [2]
Fish physiology is the scientific study of how the component ... fish anatomy and physiology complement each other, the former dealing with the structure of a fish ...
Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the cardiovascular system, specifically addressing the physiology of the heart ("cardio") and blood vessels ("vascular").. These subjects are sometimes addressed separately, under the names cardiac physiology and circulatory physiology.